Target 16
By 2031, there is a sustained increase in number and strength of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken.
Nationally in 2018-19, there were 123 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken (with 14 considered strong) (figure CtG16.1).
There is no new data since the baseline year of 2018-19. Please refer to the How to interpret the data page for more information.
Historical and ongoing target context
Language shapes our understanding of, connection to, and place within the world (Tudor-Smith et al. 2024). For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, language plays a central role in cultural identity and conceptions of Country, facilitating intergenerational transmission of complex, local and valuable cultural practices, traditions, and knowledges (AIATSIS 2023; First Languages Australia nd; IDILDG and Australian Government 2023). For tens of thousands of years, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and languages flourished, with over 250 languages comprising more than 800 dialects spoken pre-colonisation (AIATSIS 2023).
Since colonisation, government policies and assimilation practices have forcibly removed people from Country, disrupted community connections and deliberately suppressed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander language use, adversely affecting cultural knowledge and social identity (AHRC 2011; Commonwealth of Australia 2020; Tudor-Smith et al. 2024). Today, more than half of known Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages are no longer spoken, and many of those still spoken are at risk of declining (Commonwealth of Australia 2020; Marmion et al. 2014; O’Brien and Bobongie-Harris 2023).
Maintenance and revival of language is vital to the physical, social, emotional, cultural, spiritual, ecological and economic wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and communities (Commonwealth of Australia 2020; Dudgeon et al. 2014; Marmion et al. 2014; Salmon et al. 2019; Sivak et al. 2019). The rights to revitalise, use, develop and transmit traditional languages, oral traditions, writing systems and literatures to future generations are enshrined internationally (UN 2007).
Language maintenance and revitalisation activities led by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people that exercise their rights to use and practise language and culture in various ways are underway across Australia (Simpson et al. 2019; Sivak et al. 2019). These activities include preserving linguistic knowledge through creating Indigenous Language Centres and developing new learning materials and documentation, providing accessible media in language through community-controlled organisations, delivering services in language, teaching language and cultural knowledge across all education levels, and partnering with governments to establish language institutions, plans and legislation (Commonwealth of Australia 2020; FNMA nd; IDILDG and Australian Government 2023; NSW Government 2019; Reed et al. 2024; Simpson et al. 2019).
Today, Australia has a diverse language landscape (IDILDG and Australian Government 2023). Languages used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people include traditional languages, new languages and English (Commonwealth of Australia 2020; Sellwood and Angelo 2013). Traditional languages are the first, second and third language for some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, but most speak English as a first language (Commonwealth of Australia 2020). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages are nationally significant and are used in ways that communities decide, including being taught, spoken, signed and sung on Country (Commonwealth of Australia 2020).
A brighter future for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages requires people having rights over language materials and the ability to learn, work and access services in language (Beacroft 2017; Commonwealth of Australia 2020). Further action is needed for all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages and cultures to thrive (UNESCO 2024). Strategies that have emerged to advance this work include truth-telling, centring Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander voices, intergenerational knowledge transfers, bilingual education and caring for Country programs (IDILDG and Australian Government 2023). Further opportunities to lay long‑term foundations for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and languages to flourish include formal agreements, protocols and legislation (Janke et al. 2023).
References
AHRC (Australian Human Rights Commission) 2011, Social Justice Report 2011 .
AIATSIS (Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies) 2023, Languages alive , Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, https://aiatsis.gov.au/explore/languages-alive (accessed 3 July 2024).
Beacroft, L 2017, ‘Indigenous language and language rights in Australia after the Mabo (no. 2) decision – a poor report card’, James Cook University law review , vol. 23, pp. 113–134.
Commonwealth of Australia 2020, National Indigenous Languages Report .
Dudgeon, P, Milroy, H and Walker, R (eds) 2014, ‘Working Together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Mental Health and Wellbeing Principles and Practice’.
First Languages Australia nd, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages , First Languages Australia, https://www.firstlanguages.org.au/languages (accessed 2 May 2024).
FNMA (First Nations Media Australia) nd, Language and Culture | First Nations Media Australia , https://firstnationsmedia.org.au/resources/language-and-culture (accessed 2 May 2024).
IDILDG (International Decade of Indigenous Languages Directions Group) and Australian Government 2023, Voices of Country: Australia’s action plan for the International Decade of Indigenous Languages 2022–2032 .
Janke, T, Curtis, L and Shul, A 2023, Language Revitalisation and the Law: an overview , https://www.terrijanke.com.au/post/language-revitalisation-and-the-law-an-overview (accessed 16 January 2025).
Marmion, D, Obata, K and Troy, J 2014, Community, identity, wellbeing: the report of the Second National Indigenous Languages Survey , AIATSIS.
NSW Government 2019, Aboriginal Languages Act 2017 No 51 , https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/whole/html/inforce/current/act-2017-051 (accessed 15 January 2025).
O’Brien, G and Bobongie-Harris, F 2023, ‘Revitalization of First Nations languages: a Queensland perspective’, The Australian Journal of Language and Literacy , vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 183–193.
Reed, L, Mount, A and Angelo, D 2024, Strengthening Australian languages: between policy and practice , Report on the Language Policy Symposium, 26–27 September 2022, AIATSIS.
Salmon, M, Doery, K, Dance, P, Chapman, J, Gilbert, R, Williams, R and Lovett, R 2019, Defining the indefinable: Descriptors of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ cultures and their links to health and wellbeing , The Lowitja Institute and Mayi Kuwayu.
Sellwood, J and Angelo, D 2013, ‘Everywhere and nowhere: invisibility of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander contact languages in education and Indigenous language contexts’, Australian Review of Applied Linguistics , vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 250–266.
Simpson, J, Disbray, S and O’Shanessy, C 2019, ‘Setting the Scene: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages learning and teaching’, Babel , vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 7–10.
Sivak, L, Westhead, S, Richards, E, Atkinson, S, Richards, J, Dare, H, Zuckermann, G, Gee, G, Wright, M, Rosen, A, Walsh, M, Brown, N and Brown, A 2019, ‘“Language Breathes Life”—Barngarla Community Perspectives on the Wellbeing Impacts of Reclaiming a Dormant Australian Aboriginal Language’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , vol. 16, no. 20, p. 3918.
Tudor-Smith, G, Williams, P and Meakins, F 2024, Bina: First Nations languages, old and new , La Trobe University Press.
UN (United Nations) 2007, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples .
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) 2024, What is the IDIL 2022-2032 , https://www.unesco.org/en/decades/indigenous-languages/about/idil2022-2032?hub=67103 (accessed 15 January 2025).
Target data specifications
Outcome: | Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and languages are strong, supported and flourishing. |
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Target: | By 2031, there is a sustained increase in number and strength of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken. |
Indicator: | The number and strength of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken. |
Measure: | This measure is defined as: a: The number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken. b: The number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages categorised as strong. |
Target established: | National Agreement on Closing the Gap July 2020 |
Latest dashboard update: | 6 March 2024 |
Indicator type: | Target |
Interpretation of change: | A high or increasing number is desirable. An increase from the baseline year is an improvement. |
Data source(s): | Name: National Indigenous Languages Surveys (NILS) and the National Indigenous Language Report (NILR). Frequency: Periodic. National Indigenous Languages Surveys are conducted at irregular intervals: NILS1 in 2004-05, NILS2 in 2014-15, and NILS3 in 2018-19 (revised data in the March 2024 dashboard update). Documentation (links): https://aiatsis.gov.au/research/current-projects/third-national-indigenous-languages-survey |
Data provider: | Provider name: Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) Provider area: Languages |
Baseline year: | 2018-19 |
Latest reporting period: | 2018-19 |
Target year: | 2030-31 |
Disaggregations: | State and territory and Australia, by number of languages spoken currently. State and territory and Australia, by number of new languages spoken currently. State and territory and Australia, by number of strong languages. State and territory and Australia, by number of endangered languages (critically and severely endangered). State and territory and Australia, by number of languages being revived/renewed/reawakened. |
Computation: | Counting rules The NILS3 uses the following definitions: Strong language: the language is used by all age groups, including all children, and people in all age groups are fluent speakers. New language: Australian languages that have formed since 1788 from language contact between speakers of traditional languages with speakers of English and/or other languages. Critically endangered: the language is used mostly by the great‑grandparental generation and older. Only people in the great‑grandparental generation and older may remember some of the language and may not use it very often. Severely endangered: the language is mostly used by the grandparental generation and older. Only people in the grandparental generation and older may still understand the language. There is no overlap between 'Endangered languages' categories. In the 2018-19 NILS, each language has been assigned to only one endangerment category based on two indicators: absolute numbers of speakers, and intergenerational transmission. Traditional languages: the term used to refer to languages spoken by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people prior to colonisation, or the directly descended varieties spoken today. Individual traditional languages have individual names. Languages being revived/revitalised/reawakened: The language has not been used as an everyday language for some time, but some people are now learning and speaking the language. These definitions apply to each language nationally. It does not consider the relative strength within individual state and territories. Disaggregations:
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Data quality considerations: | Although best available data has been used to produce the baseline, there are several factors needed to be considered when interpreting the baseline:
For ‘strong languages’ the NILR used survey data (NILS3) in combination with external sources of information to derive more accurate data. Other limitations of the data gathered include:
For more information see: https://aiatsis.gov.au/third-national-indigenous-languages-survey-online/method-and-limitations |
Future reporting: | A fourth National Indigenous Languages Survey has been funded to be conducted by 2026. Future reporting will seek to include the following additional disaggregations: Languages by:
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Supporting indicators
Driver
- Proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages categorised as strong
- Number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken
- Number and age profile of the speakers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages
Including children
- Proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who speak an Indigenous language
Contextual information
Material for download
- Cultures and languages are strong, supported and flourishing data tables (XLSX - 45 Kb)
- Cultures and languages are strong, supported and flourishing dataset (CSV - 161 Kb)
To assist with interpretation of the data provided (Excel data tables and CSV dataset) please refer to the target data specification (above) and the indicator data specifications (provided in each supporting indicator page – linked above).