Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2020

4.1 Life expectancy

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander boys born in 2015–2017 are expected to live to 71.6 years and girls to 75.6 years. This is 4.1 years longer than for boys and 2.5 years longer for girls born 10 years earlier (2005–2007), but changes were not statistically significant for girls.

4.2 Young child mortality

From 1998 to 2018, there was a significant decline in mortality rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children aged 0–4 years (from 217 to 141 deaths per 100 000 population), with the greatest decrease in the infant (0–<1 year) mortality rate (from 13 to 5 deaths per 1000 live births).

4.3 Early childhood education

In 2019, for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in the year before full time schooling:

• 92 per cent were enrolled in preschool, an increase since 2016
• 94 per cent were attending preschool, similar to 2016.

4.4 Reading, writing and numeracy

Results for this indicator have fluctuated over time with no clear trend. Comparing 2008 and 2019, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students achieving national minimum standards increased for Years 3 and 5 for reading, and for Years 5 and 9 for numeracy. However, volatility in the data means conclusions drawn from comparisons should not be interpreted as consistent improvement over time.

4.5 Year 1 to 10 attendance

In 2019, the overall attendance rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students was 82 per cent, a decrease from 84 per cent in 2014.

The attendance rate for non-Indigenous students was 92 per cent in 2019.

4.6 Year 12 attainment

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 20–24 year olds completing year 12 or equivalent or above increased from 45 per cent in 2008 to 66 per cent in 2018-19. For non-Indigenous people, the proportion remained relatively unchanged (90 per cent in 2017-18).

4.7 Employment

Data for this indicator are difficult to interpret due to a number of changes including to the Community Development Employment Projects (CDEP) program, now the Community Development Program (CDP). The employment rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 15–64 year olds increased from 38 per cent in 1994 to 54 per cent in 2008, before decreasing to 49 per cent in 2018-19 (similar to 2012-13), partly driven by changes to the CDEP program.

4.8 Post-secondary education – participation and attainment

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 20–64 year olds with a Certificate level III or above or studying increased from 26 per cent in 2002 to 50 per cent in 2018-19.

The gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and non-Indigenous people remained steady over the period at about 25 percentage points.

4.9 Disability and chronic disease

In 2015, the rate of disability among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was 24 per cent, little changed from 21 per cent in 2009. Chronic diseases can result in disability, and vice versa.

4.10 Household and individual income

The median equivalised gross weekly household (EGWH) income for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was $553 in 2018-19.

Due to changes in data collection methodologies we cannot compare 2018-19 EGWH income with historical data. However, between 2002 and 2014-15 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s real EGWH increased by about 30 per cent.

4.11 Substantiated child abuse and neglect

Child protection substantiations for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children increased from 28 per 1000 children in 2009-10 to 42 per 1000 children in 2016-17, before decreasing to 38 per 1000 children in 2018-19.

The rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in out-of-home care increased from 21 to 60 per 1000 children over the 14 years to 2018-19, while the proportion placed in accordance with the Aboriginal Child Placement Principle decreased.

4.12 Family and community violence

The 2018-19 collection was the first time these data were collected as part of the ABS National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey and are not comparable to data collected in ABS National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Surveys.

In 2018-19, about 16 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait people aged 15 years or over reported being a victim of physical or threatened harm in the past 12 months.

This proportion is about three times the rate for the total population aged 15 years or over.

4.13 Imprisonment and juvenile detention

From 2000 to 2019, the imprisonment rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults increased 72 per cent.

The daily average detention rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth decreased from 2007-08 to 2018-19 (from 409 to 336 per 100 000 10–17 year olds), but remains about 22 times the rate for non-Indigenous youth.

5.1 Valuing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and their cultures

In 2018, more than 8 in 10 people in the general community felt it was important for all Australians to know about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and histories and about two in five rated their level of knowledge of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and histories as high — increases from 2014.

Over this period the proportions of people perceiving levels of trust as high have remained relatively unchanged.

5.2 Participation in decision-making

There are no data available on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people wanting to, and feeling that they can, participate in decision-making that is important to them. Available data on the participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people show they remain underrepresented in the Parliament of Australia and in all State and Territory parliaments. As of May 2020, parity across all nine jurisdictions would be achieved with 15 additional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander parliamentarians.

5.3 Engagement of services

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15 years or over who reported problems accessing services in the previous 12 months decreased from 30 per cent in 2008 to 24 per cent in 2014-15. Difficulty with access was higher in remote areas compared to non-remote areas (33 per cent compared to 22 per cent).

5.4 Case studies in governance

There is no trend category for this indicator, which is based on qualitative case studies. Governance arrangements that empower Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to achieve the things that matter to them, ensure they are able to participate in shared decision-making alongside governments. Case studies in this section highlight that this works best when structures, rules and laws:

• provide Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with decision-making authority
• promote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural frameworks, processes, context and time frames
• recognise power inequalities, and share power, through mechanisms that are transparent
• ensure Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people can choose their representatives, and these representatives have the resources and support that they need
• define desired outcomes, the steps to achieving them and the roles and responsibilities of participants, along with their mutual accountabilities.

5.5 Indigenous language revitalisation and maintenance

In 2014-15, similar to 2008, for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 3 years or over:

• 11 per cent were learning an Indigenous language, with the proportion highest for the youngest age group (19 per cent for 3–14 year olds)
• 16 per cent spoke an Indigenous language, with the proportion highest in remote areas (50 per cent).

5.6 Indigenous cultural studies

There is no main measure for this indicator. Data are reported on supplementary measures for students taught about Indigenous cultures as part of their studies and the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander school staff. In 2014-15, consistent with 2008, about 70 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 5–14 year olds reported being taught about Indigenous cultures at school. (No data are available for non-Indigenous people.)

5.7 Participation in community activities

Results for this indicator are unclear as one measure (participation in sport and recreational activities) has shown progress while the other measure (participation in cultural events) has declined. Between 2002 and 2014-15, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15 years or over attending cultural events in the past 12 months decreased (from 68 to 63 per cent), while the proportion participating in sport and recreational activities increased (from 49 to 59 per cent).

5.8 Access to traditional lands and waters

In 2018-19, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults that recognised traditional lands was 74 per cent. Recognition was higher in remote areas (90 per cent) compared to non-remote areas (71 per cent).

For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15 years and over the proportion increased from 2002 (70 per cent) to 2012-13 (74 per cent), where it remained in 2014-15 (data were not available for people aged less than 18 years for 2018-19).

6.1 Antenatal care

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women who gave birth and attended at least one antenatal visit in the first trimester of pregnancy, increased from 50 per cent in 2011 to 66 per cent in 2018.

6.2 Health behaviours during pregnancy

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mothers who smoked during pregnancy decreased from 52 per cent in 2009 to 44 per cent in 2018.

6.3 Teenage birth rate

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander teenage birth rate is at its lowest level since reporting began in 2004, with a rate of 48 births per 1000 women aged 15–19 years in 2018. The non-Indigenous teenage birth rate is also at its lowest level over this period, with a rate of 7 births per 1000 women of this age in 2018.

6.4 Birthweight

Nationally, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mothers who had low birthweight babies decreased from 11 per cent in 2007 to 10 per cent in 2018.

6.5 Early childhood hospitalisations

Results for this indicator are difficult to interpret, as an increase in hospitalisations may indicate improved access to services rather than an increase in prevalence of underlying conditions. It is important to consider the leading causes, duration and frequency of children’s hospitalisations. Nationally in 2018-19, there were about 3 hospitalisations for every 10 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 0–4 year olds. This rate has increased by almost 40 per cent over the past decade.

6.6 Injury and preventable disease

An increase in hospitalisations may indicate improved access to services rather than an increase in injuries and preventable diseases. This combined with no change in the death rate make the results difficult to interpret. Between 2010-11 and 2018-19, potentially preventable hospitalisation rates increased 25 per cent for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 0–4 year olds.

From 2009–2013 to 2014–2018 (for NSW, Queensland, WA, SA and the NT combined), the potentially avoidable death rate did not change substantially.

6.7 Ear health

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 0–14 year olds with a self reported hearing condition decreased from 11 per cent in 2001 to 7 per cent in 2018-19. The rate for non-Indigenous children in 2017-18 was 3 per cent.

In 2018-19, the hospitalisation rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 0–14 year olds for ear and hearing problems was 9 per 1000 population, compared to 6 per 1000 population for non-Indigenous children.

6.8 Basic skills for life and learning

From 2009 to 2018, the proportions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children classified as developmentally ‘on track’ increased in each domain of the Australian Early Development Census (from between 47–60 to 60–65 per cent). These proportions remain lower than those for non-Indigenous children (between 77–86 per cent) but the gap has narrowed in each domain since 2009.

7.1 Teacher quality

There is currently no nationally-agreed measure of teacher quality. The More Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Teachers Initiative (MATSITI) found that there were 3100 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander school teachers nationally in 2015, a net increase of 439 teachers from 2012. Of these teachers, 83 per cent were classroom teachers, 7 per cent were deputy principals and 3 per cent were principals.

7.2 School engagement

There is currently no nationally-agreed definition of school engagement and hence no agreed measure. Aspects measured in this Report include attendance (aspect of behavioural engagement) in section 4.5 and sense of belonging (aspect of emotional engagement). Data show that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students’ and non-Indigenous students’ sense of belonging at school has been decreasing since 2003.

7.3 Transition from school to work

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 17–24 year olds participating in post-school education, training or employment was 36 per cent in 2018-19, similar to 2002.

8.1 Access to primary health care

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people 15 years or over reporting their health as excellent or very good in 2018-19 (45 per cent) is largely unchanged from 2002 (44 per cent) following a decrease in 2012-13 (39 per cent).

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults in 2018-19 reporting not seeing a doctor in the previous 12 months when needed (19 per cent) is largely unchanged from 2012-13.

8.2 Potentially preventable hospitalisations

Results for this indicator are difficult to interpret. These hospitalisations are a proxy measure as increasing hospitalisations for potentially preventable conditions may represent a lack of access to primary care but could also reflect better access to hospital services. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, hospitalisation rates for potentially preventable chronic, acute and vaccine-preventable conditions have increased over time.

8.3 Potentially avoidable deaths

Between 1998 and 2018 (for NSW, Queensland, WA, SA and the NT), mortality rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from potentially avoidable deaths declined by 40 per cent.

8.4 Tobacco consumption and harm

Between 2001 and 2018-19, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults who were current daily smokers decreased from 51 per cent to 40 per cent.

Smoking rates have also decreased for non-Indigenous adults at a similar rate, but from a lower base.

8.5 Obesity and nutrition

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults who were overweight or obese increased from 69 per cent in 2012-13 to 74 per cent in 2018-19.

Supplementary data on children’s fruit and vegetable intake in 2017–19 show that 69 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children reported adequate daily intake of fruit (76 per cent for non-Indigenous children), and about 6 per cent of all children reported adequate daily vegetable intake.

8.6 Oral health

Nationally comparable time series data on tooth decay are not available. Accurate data on dental health are relatively old (for children, the most recent data are for 2012-14 and for adults are for 2017-18). Supplementary data for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15 years or over show that in 2018-19, 51 per cent reported the loss of one or more teeth, similar to 2012-13.

8.7 Mental health

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults who reported high/very high levels of psychological distress increased from 27 per cent in 2004-05 to 33 per cent in 2014-15 and were similar in 2018-19 (31 per cent).

After adjusting for population age structures, the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults experiencing high/very high psychological distress in 2018-19 was more than twice the proportion for non-Indigenous adults in 2017-18.

8.8 Suicide and self-harm

After adjusting for population age structures, the suicide death rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people increased by about 40 per cent over the decade to 2018, and continues to be about twice the rate for non-Indigenous people.

Rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men are about three-and-a-half times the rate for women (and rising).

9.1 Employment by full time/part time status, sector and occupation

For employed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 18–64 year olds, the proportion who are in full time employment increased from 55 per cent in 2002 to 63 per cent in 2014-15, and remained at this level in 2018-19.

9.2 Indigenous owned or controlled land and business

As at 30 June 2019, native title had been determined to exist in about 40 per cent of Australia (up from 5 per cent in 2004) and registered Indigenous Land Use Agreements covered 33 per cent of Australia.

In May 2020, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people collectively owned or controlled 15 per cent of land in Australia, with most of this land in very remote areas — similar to 2014 and 2016.

In 2018-19, 11 per cent of employed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults were self-employed — up from 6 per cent in 2011–13, and similar to 2014–15.

9.3 Home ownership

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults living in a home owned or being purchased by a member of their household increased from 22 per cent in 1994 to 27 per cent in 2002, and has remained at a similar level since (31 per cent in 2018-19). The proportion for non-Indigenous adults decreased from 74 to 68 per cent between 2002 and 2017-18 (earlier data are not available).

9.4 Income support

A lack of comparable data has limited analysis of income sources over time. In 2018-19, government pensions and allowances (45 per cent) and employee income (44 per cent) were jointly the main source of personal cash income for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 18−64 years.

10.1 Overcrowding in housing

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in overcrowded households decreased from 27 per cent in 2004-05 to 18 per cent in 2018-19, including a decrease in overcrowding in all remote areas from 53 to 42 per cent.

10.2 Rates of disease associated with poor environmental health

Results for this indicator are difficult to interpret with an increase in the hospitalisation rate but no change in the death rate. For NSW, Victoria, Queensland, WA, SA and the NT combined, from 2010-11 to 2018-19, hospitalisation rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people increased for just over half of the selected diseases.

For NSW, Queensland, WA, SA and the NT combined, from 2009–2013 to 2014–2018, the death rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from diseases associated with poor environmental health remained relatively unchanged.

10.3 Access to clean water and functional sewerage and electricity services

Data on access to water, sewerage and electricity services in discrete Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are relatively old and with limited time series. The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander households living in houses of an acceptable standard (including structural issues and working facilities) was 80 per cent in 2018-19, similar to 2008 (following a decrease to 78 per cent in 2012-13).

11.1 Alcohol consumption and harm

In 2018-19, 20 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults reported exceeding lifetime alcohol risk guidelines, similar to 2012-13.

The proportion who reported exceeding the single occasion risk guidelines at least once in the previous 12 months was 53 per cent, also similar to 2012-13.

11.2 Drug and other substance use and harm

The majority of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults do not misuse substances. In 2018-19, 70 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults reported they had not misused substances in the previous 12 months.

But the proportion who report that they are misusing has increased over time (from 23 per cent in 2002 to 28 per cent in 2018-19, with the increase occurring between 2012-13 and 2014-15).

11.3 Youth diversions

Nationally comparable data are not currently available. For most jurisdictions the average diversion rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous young people over the last four years (2015‑16 to 2018-19) was lower or the same as in the preceding four years (2010-11 to 2014-15), indicating a trend nationally towards less diversion.

In 2018-19, rates of diversions for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people were between 39 and 88 per cent below the rates for non-Indigenous young people.

11.4 Repeat offending

On 30 June 2019, 78 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adult prisoners had a known prior imprisonment, compared with 50 per cent of non-Indigenous prisoners. These proportions have remained relatively unchanged since 2000.

Over the period 2000-01 to 2018-19, 55 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people in sentenced supervision had more than one supervised sentence, compared to 34 per cent for non-Indigenous young people.

11.5 Community functioning

Whilst there is no overall measure of community functioning, outcomes for 2014-15 are not significantly different to those for 2008, for the six themes that make up community functioning: connectedness to Country; land and history; culture and identity; resilience; leadership; having a role, structure and routine; feeling safe; and vitality.